In journalism Journalism is the investigation and reporting of events, issues, and trends to a broad audience. Although there is much variation within journalism, the ideal is to inform the citizenry. Besides covering organizations and institutions such as government and business, journalism also covers cultural aspects of society such as arts and entertainment, a source is a person, publication, or other record or document that gives information Information, in its most restricted technical sense, is an ordered sequence of symbols. As a concept, however, information has many meanings. Moreover, the concept of information is closely related to notions of constraint, communication, control, form, instruction, knowledge, meaning, mental stimulus, pattern, perception, and representation. Outside journalism, sources are sometimes known as a "news source". Examples of sources include official records, publications or broadcasts, officials in government or business, organizations or corporations, witnesses of crime, accidents or other events, and people involved with or affected by a news event or issue.
According to Shoemaker (1996) and McQuail (1994) there are a multitude of factors that tend to condition the acceptance of sources as bona fide by investigative journalists. Reporters A reporter is a type of journalist who researches and presents information in certain types of mass media are expected to develop and cultivate sources, this applies especially if they regularly cover a specific topic, known as a "beat". Beat reporters must, however, be cautious of becoming too close to their sources. Reporters often, but not always, give greater leeway to sources with little experience. For example, sometimes a person will say they don't want to talk, and then proceed to talk; if that person is not a public figure, reporters are less likely to use that information. Journalists are also encouraged to be skeptical without being cynical ("If your mother says she loves you, check it out."). As a rule of thumb, but especially when reporting on controversy, reporters are expected to use multiple sources.
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Using confidential information
Off-the-record material is often valuable and reporters may be eager to use it, so sources wishing to ensure the confidentiality of certain information are generally advised to discuss the "terms of use" before actually disclosing the information, if possible. Some journalists and news organizations have policies against accepting information "off the record" because they believe it interferes with their ability to report truthfully, or because they suspect it may be intended to mislead them or the public.
Even if they cannot report certain information directly, journalists can use "off the record" information to uncover related facts, or to find other sources that are willing to speak on the record. This is especially useful in investigative reporting Investigative journalism is a form of journalism in which reporters deeply investigate a single topic of interest, often involving crime, political corruption, or corporate wrongdoing. An investigative journalist may spend months or years researching and preparing a report. Most investigative journalism is done by newspapers, wire services and. Information about a surprise event or breaking news News is the communication of information on current events which is presented by print, broadcast, Internet, or word of mouth to a third party or mass audience, whether on or off the record, is known as a "tip-off". Information that leads to the uncovering of more interesting information is called a "lead".
Anonymous sources
The identity of anonymous sources is sometimes revealed to senior editors or a news organization's lawyers, who would be considered bound by the same confidentiality. (Lawyers are generally protected from subpoena A subpoena is a writ by a government agency, most often a court, that has authority to compel testimony by a witness or production of evidence under a penalty for failure. There are two common types of subpoena: in these cases by attorney/client privilege The policy underlying this privilege is that of encouraging open and honest communication between clients and attorneys, which is thought to promote obedience to law and reduce the chance of illegal behavior, whether intentional or inadvertent. As such, the attorney-client privilege is considered as one of the strongest privileges available under.) Legal staff may need to give counsel about whether it is advisable to publish certain information, or about court proceedings that may attempt to learn confidential information. Senior editors are in the loop to prevent reporters from fabricating non-existent, anonymous sources, and to provide a second opinion about how to use the information obtained, how or how not to identify sources, and whether other options should be pursued.
The use of anonymous sources has been a controversial subject for many years. Some news outlets insist that anonymous sources are the only way to obtain certain information, while others hold strict prohibitions against the use of unnamed sources at all times.[1] News organizations may impose safeguards, such as requiring that information from an anonymous source be corroborated by a second source before it can be printed.
Nonetheless, prominent reports based on anonymous sources have sometimes proven to be incorrect. For instance, much of the O.J. Simpson reporting from unnamed sources was later deemed inaccurate.[2] Newsweek retracted a story about a Qur'an being flushed down a toilet that led to riots in the Middle East; the Qur'an desecration controversy of 2005 was based upon one unnamed military source.[3] The L.A. Times retracted an article that implicated Sean "Diddy" Combs in the beating of Tupac Shakur.[4] The original article was based on documents and a large assortment of unnamed sources. When reporting on the original story, the Associated Press noted that "[n]one of the sources was named."[5]
After the embarrassment, a news organization will often "clamp down" on the guidelines for using unnamed sources, but those guidelines are often forgotten after the scandal dies down. One study found that large newspapers' use of anonymous sources dropped dramatically between 2003 and 2004. The Project for Excellence in Journalism, a research group found use of anonymous sources dropped from 29 percent of all articles in 2003 to just 7 percent in 2004.[6]
Not on tape
Whether in a formal, sit-down interview setting or an impromptu meeting on the street, some sources request that all or part of the encounter not be captured in an audio or video recording ("tape"), but continue speaking to the reporter. As long as the interview is not confidential, the reporter may report the information given by the source, even repeating direct quotes (perhaps scribbled on a notepad or recalled from memory). This often shows up in broadcasts as "John Brown declined to be interviewed on camera, but said..." or simply "a spokesman said...".
Some interview subjects are simply uncomfortable being recorded. Some are afraid that they will be inarticulate and make fools of themselves when the interview is broadcast. Others might be uncooperative or distrust the motives or competence of the journalist, and wish to prevent them from being able to broadcast an unflattering soundbite In film and broadcasting, a sound bite is a very short piece of a speech taken from a longer speech or an interview in which someone with authority or the average "man on the street" says something which is considered by those who the speech or interview to be the most important point. It is often abbreviated with SOT or part of the interview out of context. Professional public relations Public relations is a field concerned with maintaining public image for high-profile people, organizations, or programs. Public relations (PR) concerns professions working in public message shaping for the functions of communication, community relations, crisis management, customer relations, employee relations, government affairs, industry officers know that having the reporter repeat their words, rather than being on the air themselves, will blunt the impact of their words[citation needed]. The audience need not see or hear them being uncomfortable (if they have unpleasant news), and not being on air also allows them to be anonymous or identified only by title.
Attribution
In journalism Attribution is the identification of the source of reported information. Journalists' ethical codes Journalism ethics and standards comprise principles of ethics and of good practice as applicable to the specific challenges faced by professional journalists. Historically and currently, this subset of media ethics is widely known to journalists as their professional "code of ethics" or the "canons of journalism". The basic normally address the issue of attribution, which is sensitive because in the course of their work journalists may receive information from sources who wish to remain anonymous. In investigative journalism Investigative journalism is a form of journalism in which reporters deeply investigate a single topic of interest, often involving crime, political corruption, or corporate wrongdoing. An investigative journalist may spend months or years researching and preparing a report. Most investigative journalism is done by newspapers, wire services and important news stories often depend on such information. For example, the Watergate The Watergate scandal was a political scandal in the United States in the 1970s, resulting from the break-in to the Democratic National Committee headquarters at the Watergate office complex in Washington, D.C. Effects of the scandal ultimately led to the resignation of the President of the United States Richard Nixon on August 9, 1974, the first†scandal that led to the downfall of US president Richard Nixon was in part exposed by information revealed by an anonymous source ("Deep Throat") to investigative reporters Bob Woodward Robert Upshur "Bob" Woodward is regarded as one of America's preeminent investigative reporters and non-fiction authors. He has worked for The Washington Post since 1971 as a reporter, and is currently an associate editor of the Post. While a young reporter for The Washington Post in 1972, Woodward was teamed up with Carl Bernstein; the and Carl Bernstein Carl Bernstein (born February 14, 1944) is an American journalist who, at The Washington Post, teamed up with Bob Woodward; the two did the majority of the most important news reporting on the Watergate scandal. These scandals led to numerous government investigations, the indictment of a vast number of White House Officians such as H.R. Haldeman,.
Ethics
Divulging the identity of a confidential source is frowned upon by groups representing journalists in many democracies [1] [2] [3]. In some jurisdictions journalists can be compelled by law to identify their sources[citation needed], and journalists can and have been jailed for upholding this principle.
There are several reasons to protect confidential sources:
- In some cases serious harm might befall the source if their identity is uncovered.
- The willingness of other potential sources to share information with reporters may be eroded if confidential sources are identified.
- The public perception of journalistic integrity is damaged when assurances about confidentiality are breached.
- The so-called "chilling effect," which serves to dissuade sources in the future from stepping forward with unknown information for fear of reprimand or retaliation.
"Speaking terms"
There are several categories of "speaking terms" (agreements concerning attribution) that cover information conveyed in conversations with journalists. In the UK the following conventions are generally accepted:
- "On-the-record": all that is said can be quoted and attributed.
- "Unattributable": what is said can be reported but not attributed.
- "Off-the-record": the information is provided to inform a decision or provide a confidential explanation, not for publication.
However, confusion over the precise meaning of "unattributable" and "off-the-record" has led to more detailed formulations:
- "Chatham House Rule(s)": Named after Chatham House Chatham House, formally known as The Royal Institute of International Affairs, is a non-profit, non-governmental organization based in London whose mission is to analyse and promote the understanding of major international issues and current affairs. It is regarded as one of the world's leading organizations in this area. It takes its name from (the Royal Institute of International Affairs), which introduced the rule in 1927:
- "When a meeting, or part thereof, is held under the Chatham House Rule, participants are free to use the information received, but neither the identity nor the affiliation of the speaker(s), nor that of any other participant, may be revealed".
- "Lobby Terms" [4]: in the UK accredited journalists are allowed in to the otherwise restricted Members' Lobby on the basis that information received there is never attributed and events there are not reported. "Lobby terms" are agreed to extend this arrangement to cover discussions that take place elsewhere.
- "Not for attribution" (as described by the Canadian Association of Journalists). The comments may be quoted directly, but the source may only be identified in general terms (e.g., "a government insider"). In practice such general descriptions may be agreed with the interviewee.
- "On background" (Canadian Association of Journalists). The thrust of the briefing may be reported (and the source characterized in general terms as above) but direct quotes may not be used.
- "Deep background" This term is used in the U.S., though not consistently. Most journalists would understand "deep background" to mean that the information may not be included in the article but is used by the journalist to enhance his or her view of the subject matter, or to act as a guide to other leads or sources. Most deep background information is confirmed elsewhere before being reported.
Neologisms
"Double super secret background"
"Double super secret background" is a humorous phrase that refers to the journalistic concept of keeping a background source secret. It was coined by Time Magazine Time is an American news magazine. A European edition (Time Europe, formerly known as Time Atlantic) is published from London. Time Europe covers the Middle East, Africa and, since 2003, Latin America. An Asian edition (Time Asia) is based in Hong Kong. As of 2009, Time no longer publishes a Canadian advertiser edition. The South Pacific edition, reporter Matthew Cooper in July 2005, during the controversy over the public disclosure of CIA operative Valerie Plame The phrase Plame Affair refers to the identification of Valerie Plame Wilson as a covert Central Intelligence Agency officer. Mrs. Wilson's relationship with the CIA was classified information. The disclosure was made in a newspaper column entitled "Mission to Niger" written by Robert Novak, and published on July 14, 2003. The phrase originated in an e-mail of July 11, 2003, from Cooper to his Time bureau chief, referring to a conversation with Karl Rove Karl Christian Rove was Senior Advisor and Deputy Chief of Staff to former President George W. Bush until his resignation on August 31, 2007. He has headed the Office of Political Affairs, the Office of Public Liaison, and the White House Office of Strategic Initiatives. Since leaving the White House, Rove has worked as a political analyst and. In compliance with a court order, the magazine released Cooper's notes, breaking Rove's anonymity Anonymity is derived from the Greek word ἀνωνυμία, anonymia, meaning "without a name" or "namelessness". In colloquial use, anonymity typically refers to the state of an individual's personal identity, or personally identifiable information, being publicly unknown.
Cooper stated[7] the phrase was "a play on a reference to the film Animal House National Lampoon's Animal House is a 1978 American comedy film directed by John Landis. The film is about a misfit group of fraternity men who challenge their college's administrators. The screenplay was adapted by Douglas Kenney, Chris Miller and Harold Ramis from stories written by Miller and published in National Lampoon magazine based on, in which John Belushi John Adam Belushi was an American comedian, actor, and musician best known as the original cast member of the NBC sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live, and starred in the films National Lampoon's Animal House and The Blues Brothers. He was the older brother of James Belushi's wild Delta House fraternity is placed on Double Secret Probation".
See also
Notes
- ^ Poynter Online - Anonymous Sources
- ^ Anonymous Sources | American Journalism Review
- ^ Newsweek Retracts Guantanamo Story
- ^ Times retracts Shakur story - Los Angeles Times
- ^ 2theadvocate.com | Music | Combs denies '94 Tupac attack — Baton Rouge, LA
- ^ NY Times Advertisement
- ^ "Reporter: Rove Told Him of Plame's CIA Tie", The Washington Post The Washington Post is Washington, D.C.'s largest newspaper and its oldest, founded in 1877. Located in the capital of the United States, The Post has a particular emphasis on national politics. D.C., Maryland, and Virginia editions are printed for daily circulation
References
- McQuail, D. (1994) Mass Communication Theory. London: Sage.
- Shoemaker, P. and Reese, S.D. (1996) Mediating the Message. London: Longman.
External links
- Be clear about your source's biases and agendas, from the Project for Excellence in Journalism
- Viewers as Sources, from Newslab
- Anonymous source tracker, from The Ink-Stained Wretch
Categories: Journalism sourcing
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City yesterday MSNBC reported the news at 12 05 sourcing WaPo s Chris Cillizza Cillizza reported it on The Fix at 11 51am FNC confirmed the news a few seconds after the MSNBC report CNN s Ed Henry reports that Pres Obama was made aware of Specter s decision at 10 25amET And with all the rushed reporting it s not clear if any one reporter got the scoop Specter
Priti Patnaik
hu, 22 Jul 2010 18:51:00 GM
About Me. Priti Patnaik: "Personal is political, the political personal." I am a business . journalist. from India working in New York City. I am a recent graduate from New York University's Business and Economic Reporting program. ...
Q. Fox News and it crew of misfits spread more misinformation than any other source on TV. Other media sources may slant to the left but they don't misinform their viewers to the extent Fox does. It is really the worst form of yellow journalism I've ever witnessed. Fox viewers are being dumbed down by this network. There are so many sources to back this up but conservatives will never hear about them because all they watch is Fox. I pity them. "Rick" ... Did I mention Bill O'Reilly in the above statement. Answer is No. You conservatives..lol..alway s trying to make excuses.
Asked by itsdabigbadwolf - Tue Feb 13 00:12:27 2007 - - 16 Answers - 0 Comments
A. The real answer is that they are no kind of journalists.They are flagrant propagandists Journalists expose reality, Fox seeks to obscure it. Bill Moyers said that news is what people want to keep hidden, and everything else is publicity. Fox is beyond publicity like Chaney is beyond Diplomacy.
Answered by No Bushrons - Tue Feb 13 00:28:11 2007
